breathing Better:

Uganda’s capital, Kampala, comes alive in two different ways. During the day, the city’s population rises to an estimated 2.5 million people as workers, traders, students, passengers and visitors enter the capital. At night, the population falls to about 1.7 million.

This daily movement reflects Kampala’s importance to Uganda’s economy. Boda bodas weave through traffic, taxis and buses compete for space, and private vehicles fill the roads during the morning and evening rush hours. Every day, millions of people travel to work, conduct business, attend school or run errands. Their movement generates revenue and sustains businesses across the city. But beneath this economic activity is another, less visible reality: a city breathing polluted air. 

As vehicles idle in traffic and engines burn fuel, emissions accumulate along Kampala’s roads. Dust rises from unpaved surfaces and construction sites, while waste burning and household cooking fuels add to the pollution. For many residents, there is little time to think about what they are inhaling. The need to reach work, deliver goods, transport passengers or earn a living often takes priority. By the time some people seek medical attention, they may already be experiencing serious health complications. 

According to the 2025 World Air Quality Report by IQAir, Uganda ranks among the countries with the poorest air quality globally, with Kampala facing a particularly heavy burden from traffic, dust, construction, waste burning and household fuel use. 

For people who spend long hours on the city’s roads including pedestrians, passengers, traders, boda boda riders, learners and traffic officers, exposure to polluted air has become part of everyday life.

Dr Mirembe Joel Nsubuga, a mobile-home medical doctor and university lecturer, says air pollution occurs when harmful substances from sources such as factories and burning fuels accumulate in the atmosphere. 

One of the pollutants that concerns him most is PM2.5 particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometres or less in diameter. 

“It is so small that it cannot be seen with the naked eye,” Dr Mirembe says. Because of its size, PM2.5 can pass through the nose and enter deep into the lungs. Some particles can cross into the bloodstream, exposing other parts of the body to harm. “That is what makes air pollution particularly worrying,” he says. “Some of the things that can harm us are too small to see.” 

The health risks are not limited to people with existing respiratory conditions. Long-term exposure to polluted air can affect the lungs and cardiovascular system, while short-term exposure can worsen breathing difficulties and other health problems. 

For residents who spend hours in traffic or work beside busy roads, exposure is not occasional. It is repeated every day.

Kampala’s air pollution comes from several sources, but vehicle emissions are a major contributor. 

Jennifer Kutesakwe, an environmental officer at the National Environment Management Authority, says Kampala’s air quality is worse than Jinja’s, even though Jinja has more industries. 

The main difference, she says, is the number of vehicles on Kampala’s roads. “Kampala has more vehicles, and monitoring data shows that Jinja has better air quality in comparison,” Kutesakwe says. 

The COVID-19 lockdown offered an unintended comparison. When movement was restricted and the number of vehicles on the roads fell sharply, air quality improved. Kutesakwe says one study recorded an improvement of more than 50 percent during the period. 

For her, the change demonstrated how strongly traffic contributes to Kampala’s pollution. However, vehicles are not the only source. 

Dust from unpaved roads, construction activities, waste burning and the use of charcoal and firewood for cooking also release pollutants into the air. Industrial activity and other urban sources add to the burden. Vehicle emissions are different in one important respect: Uganda already has regulations intended to control them.

Engineer Immaculate Nyamaizi, a senior vehicle inspector with the Ministry of Works and Transport, says mandatory vehicle inspection is designed to assess three areas: safety, roadworthiness and environmental compliance. 

Emissions are tested as part of the inspection process. Petrol vehicles are examined using a gas analyser, while diesel vehicles are tested with a smoke opacimeter. The equipment is calibrated according to applicable standards. Vehicles that exceed the permitted limits can fail inspection. 

Uganda’s vehicle-emission standards cover pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Excessive exhaust smoke and faulty emission-control systems may also cause a vehicle to fail. 

Owners of vehicles that fail inspection are given an opportunity to make repairs and return for another assessment. Nyamaizi says they have 30 days to do so without paying another inspection fee. If they return after that period, an additional fee applies. 

On paper, the system appears straightforward. A vehicle is inspected, emissions are measured, and the owner is required to correct defects before the vehicle is allowed to continue operating. Yet visibly smoking vehicles continue to move through Kampala. So why does this happen?

Nyamaizi says the challenge is not necessarily the absence of regulations, but the difficulty of enforcing them consistently. “The police are responsible for enforcement, but they cannot be everywhere at the same time,” she says. “The Ministry of Works and Transport also has a limited number of vehicle inspection facilities.” Uganda has seven vehicle-inspection facilities serving 145 districts. 

The country has approximately 2.6 million vehicles, including about 1.7 million motorcycles. Nyamaizi says roughly 60 percent of these vehicles operate in Greater Kampala. This concentration places enormous pressure on the city’s roads and on the institutions expected to regulate them.

Vehicle emissions are not the responsibility of one institution. The Ministry of Works and Transport inspects vehicles and oversees roadworthiness. The police enforce traffic and vehicle regulations. NEMA works with the ministry on environmental compliance. 

The Uganda National Bureau of Standards has a role in checking the quality of vehicles entering the country. Each institution has a role to play, but the effectiveness of the system depends on how well these responsibilities connect. If vehicle imports are poorly regulated, inspection becomes more difficult. 

If inspections are not frequent or comprehensive enough, defective vehicles may remain on the roads. If police enforcement is limited, drivers may continue operating vehicles that visibly pollute. The result is a system with several institutions, but gaps between them. The question is whether the agencies are sharing information, coordinating enforcement and holding one another accountable.

Vehicle age is another concern. Nyamaizi says vehicles weighing 3.5 tonnes or less and vehicles more than 15 years old are restricted from entering Uganda. However, the same age restriction does not apply to trucks. 

That creates a potential loophole through which older trucks can continue to enter the country. Age, however, is not the only factor determining how much a vehicle pollutes. Nyamaizi says maintenance is equally important. 

A newer vehicle can still produce excessive emissions if its engine, exhaust or emission-control system is poorly maintained. Conversely, an older vehicle that is properly maintained may perform better than expected. Buying a newer vehicle, therefore, does not automatically mean buying a cleaner one.

The Ministry of Works and Transport has introduced automated vehicle inspections at its Namanve facility. Nyamaizi says 752 vehicles have been inspected there, with 131 failing. However, the current system does not yet separate all failures according to their specific causes. 

As a result, it is not yet possible to determine from the available figures how many vehicles failed specifically because of excessive emissions. The ministry is targeting more than 50,000 vehicle inspections this year. 

It is also developing the inspection system to produce more detailed information on the reasons vehicles fail. That data will be important. Without knowing how many vehicles fail because of emissions, which vehicle types are most affected, or where the worst-performing vehicles operate, authorities may struggle to design targeted interventions. 

Data can show the scale of a problem. But it becomes useful only when it informs enforcement, maintenance requirements, import controls and public policy.

Kampala Capital City Authority is also tracking air quality across the city. Dr Alex Ndyabakira says Kampala has an air-quality monitoring network with more than 100 stations. The monitors continuously collect readings, with each station taking measurements every 90 seconds. Residents can access the readings through KCCA’s website. 

Public access to this information is important. People cannot make informed decisions about the air they breathe if pollution levels are unavailable or difficult to understand. Air-quality data could help residents identify areas and times with high pollution levels. It could also help schools, workplaces, health facilities and city authorities plan responses. 

But monitoring is only the first step. If a station records dangerous pollution levels, residents need to know what action will follow. Will authorities investigate the source? Will traffic restrictions be considered? Will waste burning or construction activities be controlled? Will vehicle owners be required to make repairs? A monitoring network can identify a problem, but it cannot solve one by itself.

The government has a responsibility to regulate, monitor and enforce. Citizens and businesses also contribute to the quality of the air. Dr Ndyabakira says individuals and companies should avoid activities that release unnecessary pollution, including burning waste. He encourages proper sorting and disposal instead. Vehicle owners also have a responsibility to maintain their cars and motorcycles. 

“Vehicle owners also have a responsibility to maintain their cars,” he says. “A poorly maintained vehicle can pollute regardless of how new it is.” People living or working in polluted environments can also reduce their exposure where possible. They may avoid areas with heavy congestion when practical, limit time spent beside visibly polluting vehicles and pay attention to publicly available air-quality information. But individual responsibility cannot replace institutional responsibility. 

A person can maintain a vehicle. A household can stop burning waste. A business can control its emissions. Citizens cannot inspect every vehicle, enforce emission standards, operate a citywide monitoring network or regulate the importation of older trucks. Those responsibilities belong to institutions with the authority and resources to act.

The answer to what Kampala’s residents are breathing is more complicated than smoke from an old car. According to Dr Ndyabakira, Kampala’s air contains a mixture of pollutants from vehicles, dust, construction, waste burning, industries and household fuels. Some of these pollutants are visible. Others are not. The most dangerous particles may be the ones residents cannot see, smell or immediately feel. PM2.5 can travel deep into the lungs and, in some cases, enter the bloodstream. This makes air pollution a public-health issue as well as an environmental one. It also means that the absence of visible smoke does not necessarily indicate clean air.

Kampala already has many of the components needed to address vehicle-related pollution. The country has emission standards, vehicle-inspection facilities, automated inspection systems and institutions responsible for enforcement. Kampala also has a growing network of air-quality monitors. 

There is evidence of progress. Automated vehicle inspections have begun, further inspections are planned, and air-quality readings are being collected continuously. But the continued presence of visibly polluting vehicles shows that having a system is not the same as having a system that works everywhere and every time. 

As Kampala grows and the number of vehicles increases, the question is no longer whether Uganda has rules for cleaner air. The more important questions are whether those rules are being enforced consistently, whether inspection and monitoring data is being used to drive action, and whether the institutions responsible can be held accountable. The pollution may be invisible. The responsibility should not be.